Report of the National Air and Space Museum Review Team

EXHIBIT SCRIPT:

"CROSSROADS: THE END OF WORLD WAR II, THE ATOMIC BOMB AND THE ORIGINS OF THE COLD WAR"

MAY 25, 1994

INTRODUCTION

This Report is submitted on behalf of the six-member "Tiger Team" assembled at the request of Dr. Martin Harwit, Director, National Air and Space Museum, to conduct a comprehensive review and make recommendations for revision of the current "script" of the proposed NASM exhibit entitled "The Crossroads: The End of World War II, the Atomic Bomb and the origins of the Cold War".

The members of the "Tiger Team" are: Brigadier General William M. Constantine, USAF (Ret.), volunteer NASM Docent and Team Chairman; Colonel Thomas Alison, USAF (Ret.), NASM Curator for Military Aviation; Dr. Gregg Herken, Historian and Chairman, NASM Department of Space History; Colonel Donald Lopez, USAF (Ret.) , former NASM Deputy Director and Senior Advisor Emeritus; Kenneth Robert, NASM volunteer Docent; and Dr. Steven Soter, Special Assistant to the Director, NASM and Team Secretary.

The Team was charged by the Director to conduct a full and open review of the script, incorporating the perspective of each individuals background and experience. The Team was asked specifically to look for any signs of imbalance in the script.

The Team's activities began with each member conducting an initial, independent review of the entire "Crossroads" script. Each Team member was asked to submit a brief written report of his findings and recommendations, in addition to entering specific changes into his copy of the script. Copies of the individual reports were provided to the Secretary and to each Team member.

During the period from May 2 through May 13, 1994, the Team met as a group to discuss the findings of each member and to conduct a page-by-page review and discussion of the script's text, photographs and quotations. Concurrent with this review, the Team received a number of revised script pages from the "Crossroads" Curator. The Team discussed these revised pages in proper sequence within each Unit of the script. Comments resulting from this second review reflected consideration of the revised pages' effect on the particular Unit as a whole and on comments made previously.

During the page-by-page review, the Secretary entered the Team's recommended additions, deletions and revisions into a "Master Script" which became the repository of the Team's specific and detailed changes. The Master Script will be submitted to the Director.

This Report is an "Executive Summary" of the Team's findings and recommendations relative to each of the five Units of the "Crossroads" script. It reflects, in brief statement form, the Team's general observations and recommendations relative to particular titled sections and/or themes, ideas, and concepts expressed in "Crossroads". This Report is intended to complement the more specific and detailed entries contained in the Master Script.

This Report was prepared by the Chairman, based upon the Team members' individual reports, notes taken during Team meetings, and the Chairman's copy of the Master Script. The Report was submitted in draft form to each Team member for review and comment. This final Report takes into account the collective comments of the Team members.

NATIONAL AIR AND SPACE MUSEUM EXHIBIT SCRIPT

"THE CROSSROADS: THE END OF WORLD WAR II, THE ATOMIC BOMB AND THE ORIGINS OF THE COLD WAR"

REVIEW AND RECOMMENDATIONS

I. UNIT 100: "A FIGHT TO THE FINISH"

A. REVIEW OF UNIT 1OO. Unit 100 contains a number of imbalances with respect to text, photos and quotations which are likely to be perceived as being more sympathetic to Japanese versus American views of the War. Additionally, several important historical themes are not adequately developed.

1. Depictions of Japanese as victims. This Unit appears overly sympathetic to the Japanese, seen as suffering, desperate defenders of their homeland and unique culture (i.e., "100 Million Hearts Beating as One"). In contrast, the U.S. will likely be perceived as motivated by vengeance and a desire to destroy the Japanese empire and its people.

2. Depictions of Japanese pre-war aggression and brutality. There is insufficient development of Japan's extensive pre-war aggression throughout Asia, atrocities and brutality inflicted upon Asian cities, civilian populations, forced laborers and prisoners of war.

3. Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. The surprise attack against the U.S. Naval Base at Pearl Harbor is the pivotal event from which sprang "A Fight To The Finish". As such, the attack should be covered in a separate section (with title) and with considerably more text, photos and quotations than currently accorded.

4. Imbalance: Depiction of the kamikaze. The kamikaze and their sacred rites are given too much coverage in the text, photos and quotations. They are characterized as brave defenders of their homeland and as heroes treated with reverence. In contrast, there is much less coverage accorded to the devastating consequences of the kamikaze attacks, including the thousands of Americans killed, wounded or missing as a result.

5. Treatment of strategic bombing attacks against cities and civilians. The strategic bombing campaign against Japan is generally characterized as mass attacks upon Japanese cities and civilians. There is insufficient mention of Japanese war production industries and other targets of military value and the dispersed nature of Japan's war industries within urban areas. There is insufficient coverage of the reasons for the change in bombing tactics and weapons, e.g., the difficulties of high altitude bombing, weather, etc.

6. Imbalance: Treatment of Japanese versus U.S. homefronts. Descriptions of the Japanese homefront in 1945 convey an overly sympathetic tone in comparison to the U.S. The text cites specific examples of hardship, shortages of food and clothing, and deprivation among the Japanese. In contrast, "Homefront U.S.A." is likely to be perceived by the viewing public as a land of high wages and good times. There is little or no mention of grief at losses of loved ones, numbers of American casualties, or other sympathetic examples of personal hardship and suffering on the U.S. homefront. The text needs to say more than "Americans were tired of the War" to balance perceptions of the homefronts.

7. Depiction of Japanese and U. S. perceptions of the enemy. The descriptions, photos and quotations depicting Japanese and U. S. "perceptions of the enemy" are generally uneven and not well developed with respect to continuity and placement within the Unit.

B. RECOMMENDED REVISIONS TO UNIT 100. The following changes to Unit 100 are recommended.

1. Eliminate warning notice. Eliminate the information notice warning of " . . . Graphic Photographs of the Horrors of War". Such graphic horrors do not have to be part of this exhibit, and would be counter-productive.

2. Expand discussion of pre-war Japanese aggression in Asia and add examples of brutality. Trace and expand the origins and early events of Japanese aggression leading up to the War in the Pacific, showing more examples of Japanese conquest and brutality against civilians, slave laborers and prisoners of war. List numbers of civilian casualties.

3 . "A Day Of Infamy". Discussion in the text should include Japanese motives and strategy for attacking Pearl Harbor; size of the attacking force and tactics; U.S. ships sunk and damaged and U.S. casualties. Cite the attack's crippling blow to projection of U.S. power in the Pacific, and the impact on the move away from isolationism in the U. S. and toward national unity against a common enemy.

4. Balance the treatment of the kamikaze. Reduce the number of elements of kamikaze glorification; expand the consequences of kamikaze attacks; include photos of casualties, numbers of Americans killed, wounded and missing, losses of U.S. ships and the anticipated consequences of kamikaze attacks during the planned invasion of Japan's home islands.

5. Expand and clarify discussion of strategic bombing. Expand discussion of the strategic bombing campaign against Japan from its inception, with emphasis on the factors that led to a change of tactics in the Spring of 1945, including operational problems, weather, etc., and particularly the dispersed nature of military targets in and around cities. Discuss U.S. strategic target priorities against Japan and cite various targets of military value, industrial complexes, etc., as opposed to mentioning only cities per se as "targets".

6. Show hardships on American homefront. For balance, add significant and poignant examples of hardships and suffering on America's homefront (quotations, photos, Gold Star Mothers' "regret to inform you, telegrams, rationing, shortages, etc.).

7. Expand and clarify U.S. perception of the enemy. Expand and develop reasons for U.S. hatred of Japanese by citing the devastating nature of early Japanese aggression in Asia, the attack on Pearl Harbor, the Bataan death march, the ferocity and bitter nature of the fighting, the brutal treatment of U.S. and allied prisoners, and the Japanese warrior culture eschewing surrender.

II. UNIT 200: THE DECISION TO DROP THE BOMB

A. REVIEW OF UNIT 200.

1. History and development of the Bomb. Unit 200 successfully traces the history of the Manhattan Project, the development of the atomic bomb, and key U.S. and Japanese leaders and decision makers.

2. Characterization of Truman and Groves. Through various inferences and quotations, President Truman appears as not entirely in command of the decision process regarding use of the atomic bomb. References to Major General Groves, the Manhattan Project leader, show him as eager to use the bomb, fighting to restore Kyoto, the historic capital of Japan, to the target list, and worried that the war would end before his bomb was ready. These impressions appear to be somewhat overstated and could be misleading to the public.

3. Unattributed title and subtitle quotations. Several titles of Unit subheadings are carried as quotations which contain no reference or attribution, nor of the context in which they were originally stated.

4. Japan seeks a negotiated surrender. The text's descriptions of Japan's efforts to modify the Allies' demand for unconditional surrender and to guarantee the Emperor's post-war status is generally well covered. The text does, however, appear to convey the impression that Japan was seeking peace, while the U.S. was seeking to obstruct means for a negotiated settlement. This could be misleading to the public.

5. "Historical Controversies". The Unit contains a number of sidebars titled "Historical Controversies" relating to the decision to drop the Bomb and/or possible alternatives to using the Bomb. Because most of these "Historical Controversies" were found to contain a fair amount of speculation, their stature as "controversies" was considered somewhat diminished. As presently written, these controversies could lead the viewing public to conclude that the decision to drop the A-Bomb was questionable I-perhaps unjustified?) rather than debatable (still open to discussion).

B. RECOMMENDED REVISIONS TO UNIT 200.

Recommendations for changes regarding Unit 200 consist generally of minor editing and other adjustments, with the exception of the "Historical Controversies". Most of these were recommended for revision and rewrite, in order to appear less speculative and more closely aligned with acknowledgments and judgments to which most historians generally subscribe. A rewrite would also increase the public's understanding of these controversies.

III. UNIT 300: DELIVERING THE BOMB

A. REVIEW OF UNIT 300.

1. Development of the B-29. The development of the B-29 bomber and the resultant mechanical and technological difficulties experienced is generally well presented.

2. Pressure to bomb Japan. The early pressure from President Roosevelt on military leaders to bomb Japan "heavily and relentlessly" requires additional explanation, in order to emphasize the many early difficulties in mounting effective aerial attacks against Japan.

3. Change in B-29 bombing tactics and weapons. In the section entitled "Burning Japan", there is insufficient explanation and development of the rationale for the change in B-29 bombing tactics and weapons in March 1945--the only explanation being " . . . poor results achieved by XXIst Bomber Command . . . "

4. Imbalance: Japanese cities as "targets". There are several references in this and subsequent sections to "burning cities", "attacking cities" and "razing cities". There are no references to industrial complexes, war-producing industries or other targets of military value in and around these cities. References only to the firebombing of cities and "Burning Japan" convey an erroneous impression that cities per se, rather than military/industrial targets, were the focus of the B-29 raids against Japan.

5. Imbalance: References to the "unconventional" 509th. The text makes reference to the 509th Composite Group's aircrews as "mavericks" with "untouchable status" earning them special treatment for "extensive and spirited off-duty antics." Additional text references to the "unconventional 509th" cite tensions between the men, ample supplies of liquor, beer parties, and the privilege of being fed 'luxuriously". In contrast, there are only brief references to the nature and intensity of the 509th crews' special training. The heavy emphasis on leisure activities together with particular references to the 509th as "unconventional" and as "mavericks", becoming increasingly impatient with security measures, could create an unsettling and misleading impression in the eyes of the public regarding the professionalism of the men entrusted with such a special mission.

6. "The Target Cities". In the section titled "Mission No. 13: Hiroshima", the text cites "three potential target cities", but does not name them. Later, the text describes "primary and secondary targets", again, without reference to what the targets are. Presumably, each of the three "potential target cities" were selected because there were military or industrial targets of some value in or near the cities, and not solely because of favorable nuclear geography. (The section on bombing Kokura/Nagasaki states that the Japanese arsenal at Kokura was the primary target.)

7. "The Greatest Thing in History". This section could benefit from the inclusion of a segment of President Truman's August 9, 1945 radio address to the nation, in which he states the reasons for the A-Bomb attack against Hiroshima. This could be used, either to replace the existing quote or as an addition to or substitute for the copy of Truman's prepared statement of August 6, 1945. (The radio address quote segment is cited in David McCullough's biography, Truman, Simon & Schuster, 1992).

B. RECOMMENDED REVISIONS TO UNIT 300. The following changes to Unit 300 are recommended.

1. Pressure to bomb Japan. Expand text discussion on the strong pressure from Roosevelt to bomb Japan and the early difficulties encountered in meeting this requirement.

2. Explain the change in B-29 tactics and weapons. Expand the explanation of the transition from high altitude bombing of Japanese targets to low altitude bombing and the use of incendiary weapons versus high explosives. In order to balance impressions of wholesale firebombing of Japanese cities, it would help to show evidence (official reconnaissance photos) of dispersed Japanese industries and discuss the susceptibility of Japanese structures to f ire and the lack of Japanese civil defense preparedness efforts.

3. Identifying military and industrial targets. Expand, with text and photographs, descriptions of Japan's war supporting industries (in Tokyo and Yokohama, for example) to convey to the public the strategic, military rationale for "Burning Japan". This is required to balance the graphic descriptions of razed and burning cities with extensive loss of life among Japanese civilians. Because many casualties shown are women and children, balance these by adding descriptions and photos of other casualties such as soldiers and factory workers.

4. The "unconventional" 509th. References to the nature of the 509th aircrews' leisure activities versus serious training for their special mission requires adjustment. More details of the training missions, anecdotes, quotes, etc. and less coverage of leisure pursuits will more accurately portray and balance the impressions of serious work versus play. Deletions of several references to the airmen's "unconventional" status and the nature of their leisure behavior would add balance to the portrayal of the 509th.

5. Targets in Hiroshima/Nagasaki. There should be more complete references to and descriptions of "targets" versus "cities" in the Unit 300 descriptions of the Hiroshima and Kokura/Nagasaki missions. This is needed for accuracy and to balance the depictions of extensive damage to the cities and the suffering of civilian inhabitants.

IV. UNIT 400: GROUND ZERO

A. REVIEW OF UNIT 400.

1. Imbalance: Graphic photographs and descriptions. Although Unit 400 is intended by the Curators to be the emotional center of the exhibit, the Unit contains far too many horrific pictures and descriptions of the aftermath of the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki--many showing the death and suffering of women and children. The repetitive inclusion of such horribly graphic photographs and quotations will produce only a visceral shock in most visitors and will be counter-productive.

2. Hiroshima and Nagasaki: Military/Industrial Centers. The Unit's descriptions of the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki prior to the bombings are informative and balanced. The titles and text acknowledge the military and industrial capabilities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, adding credence to their selection by the Target Committee for attack.

3. Imbalance: Representative Artifacts. Most of the surviving artifacts selected for display belonged to children who did not survive the bombings, e.g., parts of school uniforms, a water bottle, and clog ("A Schoolboy Trinity"; "All That Remains"). The accompanying quotations and descriptions of the children to whom the artifacts belonged add to the emotional impact. Missing from this exhibit are other representative artifacts belonging to soldiers, factory workers, government officials, etc. These are required for balance.

4. Excessive and redundant graphic quotations. There are too many terribly graphic quotations by survivors of the atomic bombings. A number of these descriptions, as written, will add only visceral shock. The public will most likely be turned off by redundant descriptions of burned, frizzled flesh, blood and gore.

5. Anticipated radiation effects. The section entitled "A Deadly New Threat: Radioactivity" does not adequately explain the Manhattan Project scientists, knowledge or actions regarding the potential radiation effects from the "Trinity" test. The issue of the scientists, "concern" with possible effects of radiation requires clarification and further explanation.

B. RECOMMENDED REVISIONS TO UNIT 400. The following changes to Unit 400 are recommended.

1. Delete and substitute certain photos, quotations, and descriptions. Make significant deletions throughout Unit 400 of redundant, horribly graphic close-up photographs of survivors as well as similarly redundant graphic quotations and descriptions. Substitute mid-distance photographs which, in most cases, will adequately convey the devastation and the dazed, often helpless survivors. Fewer numbers of photos and graphic descriptions will be sufficiently moving without appearing redundant.

2. Add representative adult artifacts. Additional artifacts of representative adult survivors are required to balance the near-total representation of children's surviving artifacts. This will require a judicious deletion of some of the children's artifacts to be selected for display.

3. Clarify scientists' knowledge of radiation effects. This section requires a more accurate and objective rewrite which gives proper value to the atomic scientists, 1945 observations, assumptions and recommendations regarding the estimated blast, heat and radiation effects of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki weapons based on the "Trinity" test. This is needed to avoid misinterpretation of the assertion that the scientists "did not consider radiation effects to be important."

V. UNIT 500: THE LEGACY OF HIROSHIMA AND NAGASAKI

A. REVIEW OF UNIT 500.

1. Origins of the Cold War. Part of the stated objective of Unit 500 is to "investigate the origins of the Cold War". It seems more appropriate that Unit 500 focus instead on the origins and history of the nuclear arms race and the dangers of proliferation of atomic weapons. The Cold War will be the subject of a later exhibit and, in order to be properly discussed here, would have to include Soviet occupation of Eastern Europe, the Berlin crisis, Churchill's Iron Curtain speech, the Cuban missile crisis, etc.

2. "Japan Surrenders". This section discusses the twin shocks to Japan of the bombing of Hiroshima and Stalin's declaration of war leading to surrender. As written, the continuity of the two events is difficult to follow. The brief paragraph in this section speculating on whether the bombing of Nagasaki was necessary properly belongs in Unit 200.

3. No Third Atomic Bomb. This section contains segments of several quotations and describes actions which require investigation as to context and accuracy.

4. V-J Day. The end of World War II is buried in the middle of a paragraph in a section of Unit 500 entitled "A 'Living God' Speaks". It seems reasonable that this Unit should include a separate section titled "V-J Day: The War Is Over" with words that say more than ". . . Japan had lost the War". The script has eight celebratory photos for V-E Day in Section 100; only one is included in this Unit for the end of World War II--a sailor kissing a nurse.

5. The Cold War and the Nuclear Arms Race. This and several subsequent sections cover the beginnings of the nuclear arms race, other nations acquiring the Bomb, early attempts at international control, advances to hydrogen weapons, nuclear testing and the rise of the anti-nuclear movement. It does not and should not cover "The Cold War" per se.

6. "A World Gone M.A.D." This discussion of the concepts of mutually assured destruction and deterrence is somewhat out of sequence and the title is subject to misinterpretation.

7. Arms Control. Delete the reference to "every man, woman and child" in paragraph 2 of this section, depicting the rise in numbers of nuclear weapons. Add a statement that the U.S. and Russia have recently agreed to reduce their nuclear arsenals to not more than 3,500 weapons each.

8. Fifty Years of the Nuclear Dilemma. This paragraph should be rewritten to reflect the following: Fifty years after Hiroshima, the dilemma remains; while nuclear inventories are being reduced, many countries have the Bomb and others aspire to join the nuclear "club". Reminders of the destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki may have helped in preventing weapons from being used again.

B. RECOMMENDED REVISIONS TO UNIT 500. The following changes to Unit 500 are recommended.

1. "Origins of the Cold War". Delete "Origins of the Cold War" in the exhibit title. Change the title to "The Crossroads: The End of World War II, the Atomic Bomb and its Legacy".

2. Japan Surrenders. Change the title to "Shocks to Japan" or "Japan Shocked into Surrender". Delete the second paragraph.

3. No Third Atomic Bomb. Inquire as to who directed General Groves to hold up shipment of the plutonium for the third nuclear weapon. Check accuracy of the statement that targets in Kokura or Tokyo were selected for the third strike.

4. "V-J Day". Suggest a new section titled "V-J Day: The War Is Over". Add new text describing in some detail the "riotous celebration" mentioned at the end of page 10. Add many photos and quotations, showing V-J Day celebrations among servicemen, civilians in war factories and shipyards, wounded U.S. servicemen in hospitals, crowd scenes in Times Square, in Hometown America and in allied countries.

This V-J Day celebration section, with photos and quotes, is needed for balance, in order to give the visiting public, and particularly World War II veterans, some evidence of the relief and happiness experienced, after four long years of struggle and sacrifice to end Japan's war of aggression.

5. The Cold War and the Nuclear Arms Race. The title of this section should be changed to "The Nuclear Arms Race" or "Start of the Nuclear Arms Race".

6. "A World Gone M.A.D." Change the title to "Destruction or Deterrence" to better represent the content of the section.

7. Fifty Years of the Nuclear Dilemma. Change the title to "The Legacy of Hiroshima and Nagasaki".

CONCLUSION

The National Air and Space Museum faces many challenges in preparing an exhibit which properly commemorates the end of World War II while presented against the backdrop of the Atomic Bomb. However well intentioned, the Crossroads exhibit will not satisfy everyone, nor can it be all things to all people.

The Team has made a conscientious effort to add objectivity, accuracy and balance to the current "Crossroads" script. We hope that the viewing public will be well served by the recommendations we have offered.

Respectfully submitted,

(signed by)
William M. Constantine
Brigadier General, USAF (Ret.)
Chairman